Excerpt from Chapter 8

So much of National Socialism can be found in the Folkish movement that it is not surprising two major studies have located the origins of Hitler’s ideology there. Viereck’s Meta-politics: The Roots of the Nazi Mind focuses on the ideas of Wagner. Mosse’s The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich focuses on broader intellectual trends and currents of which Wagner was only a representative. Viereck spends more time elaborating on the Folkish roots in romanticism, especially in philosophy, while Mosse concentrates more on the spread of Folkish ideas through German society in the 19th and early 20th centuries-but in spite of their differences, both studies have a lot in common. Taken together, they provide a significant part of the explanation for Hitler.

Neither Mosse nor Viereck pay much attention to Darwin, and neither of their books lists Darwin in the index. Viereck makes only one passing reference to “social Darwinism,” the belief that the Darwinian law of survival-of-the-fittest applied to people as well as to animals. Mosse devotes a few pages to social Darwinism and recognizes its importance, but asserts the fundamental incompatibility between National Socialism and Darwinism proper. He claims that the Darwinian concept of the origins of man was not acceptable to Nazi race theorists.[i] Not only (in Mosse’s view) was such a humiliating ancestry unsuitable to a race of superior beings destined to rule; it also required a common origin of all races-another blow to the Aryan ego.

It might seem, then, that Darwinism as Darwin taught it is of little relevance to our study-and those who believe that Darwinism is true and beneficial will find no difficulty in detaching it from National Socialism, which was false and harmful. Apart from this basic presupposition, they have a number of other reasonable points to make against the idea of a Hitler-Darwin connection.

For one thing, there are many and great personal dissimilarities between Darwin and Hitler. For another, many people have believed in Darwin’s theories without becoming Nazis, and many countries have ingested Darwinism into their cultural mainstreams without becoming fascist dictatorships. Another argument has already been presented-that a Darwinian concept of the origins of man is incompatible with Naziism. Obviously, Darwinism does not inevitably or necessarily lead to Naziism.

Those on the other hand who do not believe that Darwinism is true have no difficulty seeing a very real connection-and they too have plausible arguments. For one thing, there is Hitler’s Darwinian rhetoric-rhetoric that was elaborated on at length in Mein Kampf and later supported by Hitler’s actions (not, like a very few random comments about Christianity, contradicted by his actions).

Hitler frequently appealed to Darwinian logic. Here are a few examples from one chapter of Mein Kampf:

. . . the most patent principles of Nature’s rule. . .

. . . it will later succumb in the struggle against the higher level . . .

. . . the will of Nature for a higher breeding of all life . . .

Only the born weakling can view this as cruel, but he after all is only a weak and limited man; for if this law did not prevail, any conceivable higher development of organic living beings would be unthinkable.

In the struggle for daily bread all those who are weak and sickly or less determined succumb, while the struggle of the males for the female grants the right or opportunity to propagate only to the healthiest. And struggle is always a means for improving a species’ health and power of resistance and, therefore, a cause of its higher development.

. . . since the inferior always predominates numerically over the best, if both had the same possibility of preserving life and propagating, the inferior would multiply so much more rapidly that in the end the best would inevitably be driven into the background, unless a correction of this state of affairs were undertaken. Nature does just this by subjecting the weaker part to such severe living conditions that by them alone the number is limited, and by not permitting the remainder to increase promiscuously, but making a new and ruthless choice according to strength and health.

. . . exact scientific truth . . . cold logic . . .

. . . the rigid law of necessity and the right to victory of the best and stronger in this world. [vol. I chapt. 11, "Nation and Race"]

Hitler is not angling for votes or trying to deflect opposition here. He is stating that the Darwinian struggle for survival-of-the-fittest is the fundamental law of life, and only weaklings don’t accept it.

This is not a question of a few cut-and-paste quotes. Hitler made many references, in speeches and in writing, to nature’s elimination of the unfit as essential to progress. Moreover, in a chapter from a work in progress (Hitler’s Ethic[T&SL1] ), historian and scholar Richard Weikart makes the useful observation that Hitler frequently used the word Entwicklung, and explains that the word can be translated as “development,” but was also used by German biologists to mean “evolution.”[ii] This same source also notes that Hitler never used the word “Darwinism.” I offer my own observation that this can be used to argue either that Darwin was not important to Hitler, or that Hitler saw the progress of animal species (including the human animal species) through struggle and the elimination of the unfit as a basic law of life, not as a theory presented by an English scientist.

Reich (New York 1971), p. 103.

[ii] Richard Weikart, Hitler’s Ethic: The Nazi Pursuit of Evolutionary Progress (New York forthcoming 2009), chapt. 2 (“The Cult of Evolutionary Progress”).

[T&SL1]Unpublished work in progress

Aschheim, Steven A. In Times of Crisis: Essays on European Culture, Germans, and Jews. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001.

Avrich, Paul. Russian Rebels 1600-1800. New York / London: W.W. Norton Company, 1972.

Bascomb, Neal. Hunting Eichmann: How a Band of Survivors and a Young Spy Agency Chased Down the World’s Most Notorious Nazi. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009.

Behe, Michael. The Edge of Evolution: The Search for the Limits of Darwinism. New York / London: Free Press, 2007.

Bentley, James. Martin Niemöller. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1984.

Browning, Christopher R. Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in  Poland. New York: Harper Perennial, 1998.

Chamberlain, Houston Stewart. The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century; online version of The Foundations of the 19th Century. Translated by John Lees. London: John Lane, The Bodley Head, 1912; http://www.hschamberlain.net/index.html; accessed January 2008.

Cohen, Nick. What’s Left? London: Harper Perennial, 2007.

Cohn-Sherbok, Dan. Fifty Key Jewish Thinkers. New York / London: Routledge, 2007.

Conway, J.S. The Nazi Persecution of the Churches 1933-1945. Vancouver: Regent, 1968.

———. Review of Elisabeth Schmitz und ihre Denkschrift gegen die Judenverfolgung. Konturen einer vergessenen Biographie (1893-1977). Edited by Manfred Gailus. Association of Contemporary Church Historians (Arbeitsgemeinschaft kirchlicher Zeitgeschichtler) Newsletter vol. XIV, no. 11 (November 2008); http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/akz/akz2811.htm; accessed January 2009.

“The Cosmic Consciousness of a Dynamic Trio: The Hitler Connection,” How the Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche Explains the Resurrection and Eternal Return of Jesus Christ; http://lempisophia.org/Title%20Page.htm; accessed December 2006.

Craig, Gordon A. “Enshrining the Fuhrer,” The New York Times August 25, 1985; http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A07E4D7163BF936A1575BC0A963948260; accessed January 2008.

Darwin, Charles. The Descent of Man. The Secular Web: Library: Historical Documents; http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/charles_darwin/descent_of_man/; accessed June 2008.

“Dawkins: Religion equals ‘child abuse’: Scientist compares Moses to Hitler, calls New Testament ‘sado-masochistic doctrine’”, Faith Under Fire: WorldNetDaily; http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=48252; accessed May 2007.

Day, Vox. The Irrational Atheist: Dissecting the Unholy Trinity of Dawkins, Harris, and Hitchens. Dallas: Benbella Books, 2008.

Diephouse, David J. “Antisemitism as Moral Discourse: Theophil Wurm and Protestant Opposition to the Holocaust.” Paper presented to the 30th Annual Scholar’s Conference on the Holocaust and the Churches, Philadelphia, March 2000. CD-ROM Sourcebook, Philadelphia, Geneva: Vista Intermedia, 2001.

Edwards, David L. “Rudolf Bultmann: Scholar of Faith.” Christian Century, September 1-8 (1976), 728-730. Religion Online; http://www.religiononline.org/showarticle.asp?title=1827; accessed May 2007.

Engelmann, Bernt. In Hitler’s Germany: Everyday Life in the Third Reich. Translated by Krishna Winston. New York: Pantheon Books, 1986.

“Enlightenment: The French Revolution,” Florida Holocaust Museum; http://www.flholocaustmuseum.org/history_wing/antisemitism/enlightenment.cfm; accessed May 2007.

Evans, Richard J. The Coming of the Third Reich. New York / London: Penguin Books, 2005.

_______. “Nazism, Christianity and Political Religion: A Debate,” Journal of Contemporary History 42, no. 1 (2007), 5-7.

“Excerpts from Hitler’s Table Talk,” Kevin’s Articles on Religion (citing the edition by Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1953); http://davnet.org/kevin/articles/table.html; accessed June 2008.

Feldberg, Michael. “John Adams embraces a Jewish homeland,” Homepage for Lewis Loflin; http://www.sullivan-county.com/id2/adams_jews.htm; accessed January 2008.

Fest, Joachim C. Hitler. Translated by Richard and Clara Winston. New York / London: Harcourt Brace, 1974.

Fichte, Johann Gottlieb. “Addresses to the German Nation,” Internet Modern History Sourcebook; http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1806fichte.html; accessed January 2008. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1807fichte1.html; accessed January 2008.

———. Addresses to the German Nation. Translated by R.F. Jones and G.H. Turnbull. Chicago and London: Open Court Publishing, 1922.

———. Addresses to the German Nation. Translated by R.F. Jones and G.H. Turnbull, Ed. George Armstrong Kelly. New York: Harper and Row, 1968.

Frank, Walter S. “Adolf Hitler: The Making of a Fuhrer (Who was Responsible?),” Smoter .com; http://www.smoter.com/hitler.htm; accessed January 2008.

Friedländer, Saul. The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews 1939-1945. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2007.

Gasman, Daniel. The Scientific Origins of National Socialism. New Brunswick USA / London: Transaction Publishers, 2004.

Gay, Peter. Weimar Culture: The Outsider as Insider. New York: Harper and Row, 1968.

Gilbert, Martin. The Holocaust: A History of the Jews of Europe During the Second World War. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1985.

Glazov, Jamie. United in Hate: The Left’s Romance with Tyranny and Terror. Los Angeles: WND Books, 2009.

Goldberg, Jonah. Liberal Fascism: The Secret History of the American Left from Mussolini to the Politics of Meaning. New York: Doubleday, 2007.

Goldhagen, Daniel Jonah. Hitler’s Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996.

Golomb, Jacob and Robert Wistrich, Eds. Introduction to “Nietzsche, Godfather of Fascism? On the Uses and Abuses of Philosophy,” Princeton University Press; http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/chapters/i7403.html; accessed January 2008.

Green, Lowell C. Lutherans Against Hitler: The Untold Story. St. Louis: Concordia, 2007.

Guinness, Os. Unspeakable: Facing up to Evil in an Age of Genocide and Terror. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 2005.

Gundry, Stanley N. and Steven B. Cowan, Eds. Five Views on Apologetics. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2000.

Haeckel, Ernst. The Riddle of the Universe at the Close of the Nineteenth Century. Translated by Joseph McCabe. London: Rationalist Press, 1900.

Hallie, Philip. Lest Innocent Blood Be Shed: The Story of the Village of Le Chambon and How Goodness Happened There. New York: Harper and Row, 1979.

Hankins, Barry. Francis Schaeffer and the Shaping of Evangelical America. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2008.

Harris, Sam. The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason. London: The Free Press, 2006.

———. “Response to Controversy”;

http://www.samharris.org/site/full_text/response-to-controversy2/; accessed September 2008.

Harrison, Paul. “Hegel: Philosophy and history as theology,” Pantheist History; http://members.aol.com/pantheism0/hegel.htm; accessed January 2008.

F.A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2007.

Heer, Jeet. “Enlightened Kant Racist,” Review of German Idealism and the Jew: The Inner Anti-Semitism of Philosophy and German Jewish Responses, by Michael Mack. Adelaide Institute; http://www.adelaideinstitute.org/Germany/kant.htm; accessed January 2008.

Hegel, G.W. The Philosophy of History. Translated by J. Sibree. Great Books of the Western World, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952.

Hegel, G.W. The Philosophy of Right. Translated by T.M. Knox. Great Books of the Western World, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952.

“Hegel’s Philosophy of Right (Third Part: Ethical Life, iii. The State),” Hegel by HyperText; http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/works/pr/prstate2.htm#PR324; accessed January 2008.

Heine, Heinrich. On the History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany. Translated by Howard Pollack Milgate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Henry, Matthew. “Commentary on the Whole Bible,” Christian Classics Ethereal Library, Calvin College; http://www.ccel.org/h/henry/mhc2/MHC00000.HTM; accessed January 2008.

“The Hep! Hep! Riots,” Gates to Jewish Heritage; http://www.jewishgates.com/file.asp?File_ID=80; accessed March 2006.

Hicks, Stephen R. C. Explaining Postmodernism: Skepticism and Socialism from Rousseau to Foucault. Phoenix, AZ: Scholargy Publishing, 2004.

Hitler, Adolf. Mein Kampf; http://www.hitler.org/writings/Mein_Kampf/; accessed July 2007.

———. Mein Kampf. Translated by Ralph Manheim. Boston / New York: Mariner Books, 1999.

———. Speeches; http://www.adolfhitler.ws/lib/speeches/text/speeches.htm; accessed April 2006.

______. Hitler Speeches and Quotes. London: World Propaganda Classics, 2008.

______. Hitler’s Second Book: The Unpublished Sequel to Mein Kampf. Translated by Krista Smith. New York: Enigma Books, 2006.

“The Hitler No One Knows,” German Propaganda Archive, Calvin College: from Heinrich Hoffmann, Hitler wie ihn keiner kennt (Berlin: “Zeitgeschichte” Verlag, 1932); http://www.bytwerk.com/gpa/hitler2.htm; accessed January 2008.

“The Hitler of Mein Kampf”; http://www.geocities.com/mikem2u/meinkampf.html; accessed January 2008.

Hockenos, Matthew. Review of The Reluctant Revolutionary: Dietrich Bonhoeffer’s Collision with Prusso-German History, by John A. Moses; Association of Contemporary Church Historians     (Arbeitsgemeinschaft kirchlicher Zeitgeschichtler) Newsletter vol. XV, no. 7 (July 2009); http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/akz/akz2907.htm; accessed July 2009.

Hoess, Rudolf. Commandant of Auschwitz. Translated by Constantine Fitzgibbon. London: Phoenix Press, 2000.

Hollingdale, R.J. Nietzsche: The Man and His Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Horne, Alistair. The Age of Napoleon. New York: Modern Library, 2006.

Hughes, John Jay. “A Mass Murderer Repents,” Institute for Christian Spirituality; http://theology.shu.edu/lectures/massmurder.htm; accessed January 2008.

Ibrahim, Raymond. “The Al Qaeda Reader and Mein Kampf,” FrontPageMagazine.com, Friday, November 09, 2007; http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=4EDEB0E8-C6B0-4147-883D-D37738482652; accessed February 2008.

Jäckel, Eberhard. Hitler’s World View: A Blueprint for Power. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997.

Jefferson, Thomas. “Syllabus of an Estimate of the Merit of the Doctrines of Jesus, Compared with Those of Others.” http://www.angelfire.com/co/JeffersonBible/jeffbsyl.html; accessed January 2008.

Johnson, Paul. Modern Times: The World from the Twenties to the Nineties. New York: Harper Perennial, 1991.

———. A History of the Jews. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1987.

Johnson, Phillip E. The Wedge of Truth: Splitting the Foundations of Naturalism. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2000.

Judaken, Jonathan. Review of From Darwin to Hitler: Evolutionary Ethics, Eugenics, and Racism in Germany, by Richard Weikart. H-Ideas, H-Net Reviews, June, 2005; http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=80951126890820; accessed May 2007.

Just, Dieter. “Ich denke—also bin ich nicht.” English summary by Herbert Renz-Polster; http://www.d-just.de/text1eng.htm; accessed January 2008.

Kalish, Michael. “Friedrich Nietzsche’s Influence on Hitler’s Mein Kampf”; http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/133p/133p04papers/MKalishNietzNazi046.htm; accessed January 2008.

Kant, Immanuel. An Answer to the Question: “What is Enlightenment?”. Translated by H.B. Nisbet. London: Penguin Books, 2009.

Katz, Steven A. The Holocaust in Historical Context (Vol. 1). New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Kay, James. Review of Christian Faith in Dark Times: Theological Conflicts in the Shadow of Hitler, by Jack Forstman. Theology Today 50, no. 4 (January 1993); http://theologytoday.ptsem.edu/jan1994/v50-4-bookreview6.htm; accessed May 2007.

Kershaw, Ian. Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris. New York / London: W. W. Norton, 2000.

______. The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation. London: Arnold, 2000.

Kimel, Alexander. “Holocaust and Christianity,” Holocaust Educational Digest; http://www.kimel.net/christi.html; accessed January 2008.

Klemperer, Victor. I Will Bear Witness: A Diary of the Nazi Years 1942-1945. Translated by Martin Chalmers. New York: Random House / Modern Library, 2001.

Kubizek, August. The Young Hitler I Knew. Translated by Geoffrey Brooks. London: Greenhill Books, 2006.

Kupelian, David. The Marketing of Evil: How Radicals, Elitists, and Pseudo-Experts Sell Us Corruption Disguised as Freedom. Nashville, TN: WND Books, 2005.

Laqueur, Walter. Weimar: A Cultural History. New York: Perigee, 1980.

Levi, Primo. The Reawakening. Translated by Stuart Wolf. New York: Touchstone Books, 1995.

Livingstone, David. “Plato the Kabbalist,” Illuminati Conspiracy Archive; http://www.conspiracyarchive.com/NewAge/Plato_Kabbalist.htm; accessed January 2008.

Lukacs, John. The Hitler of History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997.

Luther, Martin. On the Jews and Their Lies. Translated by Martin H. Bertram. Humanitas International; http://www.humanitas-international.org/showcase/chronography/documents/luther-jews.htm; accessed January 2008.

______. Martin Luther: Selections from his Writings. Edited by John Dillenberger. New

York: Anchor Books, 1962.

______. Table Talk. Translated by Theodore G. Tappert (Luther’s Works vol. 54). Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1967.

______. The Table Talk of Martin Luther. Translated by William Hazlitt. Center for Reformed Theology and Apologetics; http://www.reformed.org/master/index.html?

mainframe=/documents/Table_Talk/table_talk.html; accessed June 2009.

Mack, Michael. German Idealism and the Jew: The Inner Anti-Semitism of Philosophy and German Jewish Responses. Chicago / London: University of Chicago Press, 2003.

Marcuse, Harold and Werner Cohn. “Correspondence about Niemöller’s Antisemitism”; http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/projects/niem/NiemAntisemCohnHMCorresp034.htm; accessed January 2008.

Maser, Werner. Hitler’s Letters and Notes. New York: Harper and Row, 1974.

McGrath, Alister. The Twilight of Atheism: The Rise and Fall of Disbelief in the Modern World. London: Rider, 2004.

Mencken, H.L. “Introduction to Nietzsche’s Antichrist,” The Gutenberg Project; http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19322/19322-h/19322-h.htm; accessed August 2008.

Michael, Robert. “Theological Myth, German Antisemitism, and the Holocaust: The Case of Martin Niemoeller.” Holocaust and Genocide Studies: An International Journal, vol. 2, no. 1 (1987), 105-22.

Montgomery, John Warwick. In Defense of Martin Luther. Milwaukee, WI: Northwestern Publishing House, 1970.

______. Tractatus Logico-Theologicus. Bonn: Culture and Science Publishing, 2003.

Moore, Gregory. Excerpt from Nietzsche, Biology and Metaphor, (Cambridge University Press Catalogue); http://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/12306/excerpt/9780521812306_excerpt.pdf; accessed January 2008.

Mosse, George L. The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1971.

Myers, Peter. Review of Nietzsche and Jewish Culture, Jacob Golomb, ed.; http://users.cyberone.com.au/myers/nietzsche.html; accessed January 2008.

Nietzsche, Friedrich. “Der Antichrist: Fluch auf das Christenthum,” The Nietzsche Channel; http://www.geocities.com/thenietzschechannel/antig.htm; accessed December 2007.

———. The Antichrist: Curse on Christianity. Translated by Walter Kaufmann, The Nietzsche Channel; http://www.geocities.com/thenietzschechannel/anti.htm; accessed December 2007.

———. The Antichrist: Curse on Christianity. Translated by H.L. Mencken; http://www.primitivism.com/antichrist.htm; accessed August 2008.

———. Beyond Good and Evil, translated by Ian Johnston; http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/Nietzsche/beyondgoodandevil8.htm; accessed January 2008.

———. “Nietzsche contra Wagner,” The Nietzsche Channel; http://www.geocities.com/thenietzschechannel/ncw.htm#for; accessed January 2008.

———. On the Genealogy of Morals: A Polemical Tract. Translated by Ian Johnston; http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/Nietzsche/genealogytofc.htm; accessed January 2008.

“Nietzsche: Letters of Insanity,” The Nietzsche Channel; http://www.geocities.com/thenietzschechannel/niletters.htm; accessed January 2008.

Orenstein, Phil. “Heil, Professor!” FrontPageMagazine.com, July 14, 2006; http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=23293; accessed May 2007.

Ozment, Steven. A Mighty Fortress: A New History of the German People (110 B.C. to the 21st Century). London: Granta Books, 2004.

Padfield, Peter. Himmler: Reichsfuhrer-SS. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1990.

Pascal, Blaise. Pensées. Translated by A.J. Krailsheimer. London: Penguin Books, 1995.

Pashak, Barrett. Review of German Idealism and the Jew: The Inner Anti-Semitism of Philosophy and German Jewish Responses, by Michael Mack. Constantinbrunner.info; http://www.constantinbrunner.info/pages/mack.htm; accessed January 2008.

Peukert, Detlev J. The Weimar Republic: The Crisis of Classical Modernity. Translated by Richard Deveson. New York: Hill and Wang, 1992.

Pollock, John. A Foreign Devil in China. Minneapolis, MN: World Wide Publications, 1988.

“Pre-1933 Nazi Posters,” German Propaganda Archive, Calvin College; http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/posters1.htm; accessed January 2008.

“The Private and Political Testaments of Hitler, April 29, 1945”; http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1945/450429a.html; accessed May 2007.

Reck-Malleczewen, Friedrich. Diary of a Man in Despair. Translated by Paul Rubens. London: Audiogrove Ltd., 1995.

Rees, Lawrence. Auschwitz: The Nazis and the ‘Final Solution.’ London: Ebury Publishing 2005.

———. The Nazis: A Warning from History. New York: New Press, 1997.

Richards, Robert J. “Ernst Haeckel’s Alleged Anti-Semitism and Contributions to Nazi Biology”; http://home.uchicago.edu/~rjr6/articles/Haeckel–antiSemitism.pdf; accessed June 2008.

Rose, Paul Lawrence. German Question / Jewish Question: Revolutionary Antisemitism from Kant to Wagner. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.

______. Wagner: Race and Revolution. New Haven / London: Yale University Press, 1992.

Rosenbaum, Ron. Explaining Hitler. New York: Random House, 1998.

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Social Contract. London: Penguin Books, 2004.

Russell, William. Berlin Embassy. New York: Carroll and Graf, 2005.

Ryback, Timothy W. “Hitler’s Forgotten Library: The Man, His Books, and His Search For God.” The Atlantic Monthly, May 2003; http:www.fpp.co.uk/Hitler/library/Atlantic_Monthly.html; accessed May 2007.

Sachar, Abram Leon. A History of the Jews. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1964.

Schaeffer, Francis. The Great Evangelical Disaster. Westchester, IL: Crossway Books, 1984.

Schopenhauer, Arthur. The Horrors and Absurdities of Religion. Translated by R. J. Hollingdale. London: Penguin, 2009.

______. Religion. Translated by T. Bailey Saunders. eBooks@Adelaide; http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/s/schopenhauer/arthur/religion/chapter6.html; accessed May 2007.

______. The World as Will and Idea. Translated by R. B. Haldane and J. Kemp. Internet Archive;   http://www.archive.org/stream/theworldaswillan01schouoft/theworldaswillan01schouoft_djvu.txt; accessed September, 2009.

Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Letters from a Stoic (Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium). Translated by Robin Campbell. London: Penguin, 2004.

Shirer, William L. Berlin Diary. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1941.

———. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1960.

Shyovitz, David. “The Hep Hep Riots,” Jewish Virtual Library; http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/hep.html; accessed May 2007.

Singer, Peter. Practical Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.

Smith, James K. A. Who’s Afraid of Postmodernism? Taking Derrida, Lyotard, and Foucault to Church. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2008.

Snell, John, ed. The Nazi Revolution: Germany’s Guilt or Germany’s Fate?. Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath, 1959.

Spengler. “Islam: Religion or political ideology?,” Asia Times Online; http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Front_Page/FH10Aa01.html; accessed May 2007.

Stalin, Joseph. “Dialectical and Historical Materialism,” The Art Bin; http://art-bin.com/art/ostalineng.html; accessed January 2008.

Steigmann-Gall, Richard. The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919-1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Stein, Leo. “Niemoller speaks!” The National Jewish Monthly May 1941; Homepage of Harold Marcuse; www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/projects/niem/njm415/NatJewMonthly415.htm; accessed January 2008.

Stein, Stuart. “Individual Responsibility of Defendants: Julius Streicher,” Nuremberg Judgment; http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/Streicher.htm; accessed January 2008.

Steinberg, Stefan. “One hundred years since the death of Friedrich Nietzsche: a review of his ideas and influence—Parts 1–3,” World Socialist Web Site; www.wsws.org/articles/2000/oct2000/niet-o20.shtml; accessed January 2008; www.wsws.org/articles/2000/oct2000/niet-o21.shtml; accessed January 2008; www.wsws.org/articles/2000/oct2000/niet-o23.shtml; accessed January 2008.

Stephens, Don. War and Grace: Short Biographies from the World Wars. Darlington: Evangelical Press, 2005.

Stewart, Jon. Introduction to The Hegel Myths and Legends; http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/us/stewart.htm; accessed January 2008.

Swan, James. “Martin Luther’s Attitude Toward the Jews,” New Testament Research Ministries;   http://www.ntrmin.org/Luther%20and%20the%20Jews%20(Web).htm#a1; accessed June 2009.

Teo, Thomas. “The historical problematization of ‘mixed race’ in psychological and human-scientific discourses”; http://www.yorku.ca/tteo/teach/Teo2004.htm; accessed January 2008.

Thomas, Robert. “The Nature of Nazi Ideology,” Libertarian Alliance; www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/histn/histn015.pdf; accessed January 2008.

Thornton, Ted. “Persecution of the Jews in Europe,” History of the Middle East Data Base; http://www.nmhschool.org/tthornton/mehistorydatabase/christian_persecution_of_the_jew.php; accessed January 2008.

Toland, John. Adolf Hitler. Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Co., 1976.

“Toledoth Yeshu,” Ancient Jewish Accounts of Jesus, [Text from Goldstein, Jesus in the Jewish Tradition, pp. 148-154.]; http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/humm/Topics/JewishJesus/toledoth.html; accessed January 2008.

“The Trial of Adolf Eichmann,” Session 105 (Part 4 of 4), The Nizkor Project; http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/e/eichmann-adolf/transcripts/Sessions/Session-105-04.html; accessed January 2008.

Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will), directed by Leni Riefenstahl; http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-1624809629731313480; accessed July 2007.

“The 25 Points of Hitler’s Nazi Party,” Scrapbookpages.com; http://www.scrapbookpages.com/DachauScrapbook/25Points.html; accessed January 2008.

Tyndale, William. The Obedience of a Christian Man. London: Penguin Books, 2000.

van Vrekhem, Georges. Hitler and his God: The Background of the Hitler Phenomenon. New Delhi: Rupa and Co., 2006.

Viereck, Peter. Meta-politics: The Roots of the Nazi Mind. New York: Capricorn Books, 1965.

von Lang, Jochen, and Claus Sibyll, Eds. Eichmann Interrogated: Transcripts from the Archives of the Israeli Police. Translated by Ralph Manheim. New York: Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux, 1983.

von Metternich, Prince Klemens. Memoirs of Prince Metternich (1880—Vol. 03), “free online text repository”; http://www.literature.at/elib/index.php5?title=Metternich_-_Memoirs_of_Prince_Metternich_-_1880_-_Vol_03; accessed July 2008.

Wagner, Richard. “Hero-dom and Christendom.” Translated by William Ashton Ellis; http://users.belgacom.net/wagnerlibrary/prose/waghero.htm; accessed October 2007.

———. “Introduction to a Work of Count Gobineau’s.” Translated by William Ashton Ellis; http://users.belgacom.net/wagnerlibrary/prose/wlpr0155.htm; accessed October 2007.

———. “Know Thyself.” Translated by William Ashton Ellis; http://users.belgacom.net/wagnerlibrary/prose/wagknow.htm; accessed October 2007.

———. “On State and Religion.” Translated by William Ashton Ellis; http://users.belgacom.net/wagnerlibrary/prose/wagstarel.htm; accessed October 2007.

———. “Religion and Art.” Translated by William Ashton Ellis; http://users.belgacom.net/wagnerlibrary/prose/wlpr0126.htm; accessed October 2007.

Walker, Jim. “Hitler’s Christianity,” NoBeliefs.com; http://www.nobeliefs.com/Hitler1.htm; accessed January 2008.

———. “Thomas Jefferson on Christianity and Religion,” NoBeliefs.com; http://www.nobeliefs.com/jefferson.htm; accessed January 2008.

Wang, Stephen. The Long Road to Freedom: The Story of Wang Mingdao. Tonbridge: Sovereign World, 2002.

Ward, Keith. Pascal’s Fire: Scientific Faith and Religious Understanding. Oxford: One World, 2006.

“Was Hitler an atheist…?” Critical Thought and Religious Liberty; http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/quotes_hitler.html; accessed January 2008.

Weikart, Richard. From Darwin to Hitler: Evolutionary Ethics, Eugenics, and Racism in Germany. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2004.

———. Hitler’s Ethic: The Nazi Pursuit of Evolutionary Progress. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.

Weil, Simon. Wagner and the Jews; http://members.aol.com/wagnerbuch/intro.htm; accessed January 2008.

Wesley, John. The Journal of John Wesley. Oxford: Lion Publishing, 2003.

Whitefield, George. George Whitefield’s Journals. Edinburgh: Banner of Truth Trust, 1998.

Wicks, Robert. “Arthur Schopenhauer,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2003/entries/schopenhauer/; accessed January 2008.

Wiesel, Eli. “The Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech,” published in Night, Translated by Marion Wiesel. New York: Hill and Wang, 2006.

Wistrich, Robert S. Hitler and the Holocaust: How and Why the Holocaust Happened. London: Phoenix Press, 2002.